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Stellar Populations of Globular Clusters in the Elliptical Galaxy NGC 1407
We present high-quality Keck spectroscopic data for a sample of 20globular clusters (GCs) in the massive E0 galaxy NGC 1407. A subset of20 line-strength indices of the Lick/IDS system has been measured forboth the GC system and the central integrated starlight of the galaxy.Ages, metallicities, and [α/Fe] ratios have been derived usingseveral different approaches. The majority of GCs in NGC 1407 studiedare old, follow a tight metallicity sequence reaching values slightlyabove solar, and exhibit mean [α/Fe] ratios of ~0.3 dex. Inaddition, three GCs are formally derived to be young (~4 Gyr), but weargue that they are actually old GCs hosting blue horizontal branches.We report, for the first time, evidence for the existence of twochemically distinct subpopulations of metal-rich (MR) GCs. We find thatsome MR GCs exhibit significantly larger [Mg/Fe] and [C/Fe] ratios.Different star formation timescales are proposed to explain thecorrelation between Mg and C abundances. We also find striking CNoverabundances over the entire GC metallicity range. It is interestingto note that the behavior of C and N in metal-poor GCs clearly deviatesfrom that in MR GCs. In particular, for MR GCs, N increases dramaticallywhile C essentially saturates. This may be interpreted as a consequenceof the increasing importance of the CNO cycle with increasingmetallicity.
| Metallicity and age gradients in round elliptical galaxies
Aims.We probe the stellar population age and metallicity distributionsin nearby elliptical galaxies over the largest extension to date. Methods: Long-slit spectroscopy is made by using the spectrographSCORPIO of the 6-m telescope of the Special Astrophysical Observatory ofthe Russian Academy of Sciencies. The Lick indices Hβ, Mg b, Fe5270, and Fe 5335 are calculated along the slit up to radii of 1.3 to3re in 4 galaxies and up to 0.5re in the fifthone. The comparison with evolutionary synthesis models of simple stellarpopulations allows us to disentangle age and metallicity and to measureboth. Results: We have found that the mean stellar age is constantalong the radius only in one galaxy out of 5. The other 4 galaxiesdemonstrate quite different behaviour of the mean stellar age: the outerparts are older than the centres in 3 cases and younger - in one case.The metallicity gradients cannot be approximated by a single power lawover the full radial extension in 4 galaxies of 5. The inner metallicitygradients within 0.5re are all rather steep, steeper than-0.4 metallicity dex per radius dex, and are inconsistent with theorigin of the elliptical galaxies by a major merger.Based on observations collected with the 6 m telescope of the SpecialAstrophysical Observatory (SAO) of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS)which is operated under the financial support of Science Department ofRussia (registration number 01-43).
| Where the Blue Stragglers Roam: Searching for a Link between Formation and Environment
The formation of blue stragglers is still not completely understood,particularly the relationship between formation environment andmechanism. We use a large, homogeneous sample of blue stragglers in thecores of 57 globular clusters to investigate the relationships betweenblue straggler populations and their environments. We use a consistentdefinition of ``blue straggler'' based on position in thecolor-magnitude diagram and normalize the population relative to thenumber of red giant branch stars in the core. We find that thepreviously determined anticorrelation between blue straggler frequencyand total cluster mass is present in the purely core population. We findsome weak anticorrelations with central velocity dispersion and withhalf-mass relaxation time. The blue straggler frequency does not showany trend with any other cluster parameter. Even though collisions maybe expected to be a dominant blue straggler formation process inglobular cluster cores, we find no correlation between the frequency ofblue stragglers and the collision rate in the core. We also investigatedthe blue straggler luminosity function shape and found no relationshipbetween any cluster parameter and the distribution of blue stragglers inthe color-magnitude diagram. Our results are inconsistent with somerecent models of blue straggler formation that include collisionalformation mechanisms and may suggest that almost all observed bluestragglers are formed in binary systems.
| Integrated-Light Two Micron All Sky Survey Infrared Photometry of Galactic Globular Clusters
We have mosaicked Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS) images to derivesurface brightness profiles in J, H, and Ks for 104 Galacticglobular clusters. We fit these with King profiles and show that thecore radii are identical to within the errors for each of these IRcolors and are identical to the core radii at V in essentially allcases. We derive integrated-light colors V-J, V-H, V-Ks, J-H,and J-Ks for these globular clusters. Each color shows areasonably tight relation between the dereddened colors and metallicity.Fits to these are given for each color. The IR - IR colors have verysmall errors, due largely to the all-sky photometric calibration of the2MASS survey, while the V-IR colors have substantially largeruncertainties. We find fairly good agreement with measurements ofintegrated-light colors for a smaller sample of Galactic globularclusters by M. Aaronson, M. Malkan, and D. Kleinmann from 1977. Ourresults provide a calibration for the integrated light of distantsingle-burst old stellar populations from very low to solarmetallicities. A comparison of our dereddened measured colors withpredictions from several models of the integrated light of single-burstold populations shows good agreement in the low-metallicity domain forV-Ks colors but also shows an offset at a fixed [Fe/H] of~0.1 mag in J-Ks, which we ascribe to photometric systemtransformation issues. Some of the models fail to reproduce the behaviorof the integrated-light colors of the Galactic globular clusters nearsolar metallicity.
| Global fitting of globular cluster age indicators
Context: .Stellar models and the methods for the age determinations ofglobular clusters are still in need of improvement. Aims: .Weattempt to obtain a more objective method of age determination based oncluster diagrams, avoiding the introduction of biases due to thepreference of one single age indicator. Methods: .We compute newstellar evolutionary tracks and derive the dependence of age indicatingpoints along the tracks and isochrone - such as the turn-off or bumplocation - as a function of age and metallicity. The same criticalpoints are identified in the colour-magnitude diagrams of globularclusters from a homogeneous database. Several age indicators are thenfitted simultaneously, and the overall best-fitting isochrone isselected to determine the cluster age. We also determine thegoodness-of-fit for different sets of indicators to estimate theconfidence level of our results. Results: .We find that ourisochrones provide no acceptable fit for all age indicators. Inparticular, the location of the bump and the brightness of the tip ofthe red giant branch are problematic. On the other hand, the turn-offregion is very well reproduced, and restricting the method to indicatorsdepending on it results in trustworthy ages. Using an alternative set ofisochrones improves the situation, but neither leads to an acceptableglobal fit. Conclusions: .We conclude that evolutionary tracks oflow-mass metal-poor stars are far from reproducing all aspects ofglobular cluster colour-magnitude diagrams and that the determination ofcluster ages still depends on the favourite method or indicator chosen.
| Multivariate analysis of globular cluster horizontal branch morphology: searching for the second parameter
Aims.The interpretation of globular cluster horizontal branch (HB)morphology is a classical problem that can significantly blur ourunderstanding of stellar populations. Methods: .We present a newmultivariate analysis connecting the effective temperature extent of theHB with other cluster parameters. The work is based on Hubble SpaceTelescope photometry of 54 Galactic globular clusters. Results: .The present study reveals the important role of the total mass of theglobular cluster on its HB morphology. More massive clusters tend tohave HBs more extended to higher temperatures. For a set of three inputvariables including the temperature extension of the HB, [Fe/H] and M_V,the first two eigenvectors account for 90% of the total samplevariance. Conclusions: . Possible effects of clusterself-pollution on HB morphology, stronger in more massive clusters,could explain the results derived here.
| Globular cluster system and Milky Way properties revisited
Aims.Updated data of the 153 Galactic globular clusters are used toreaddress fundamental parameters of the Milky Way, such as the distanceof the Sun to the Galactic centre, the bulge and halo structuralparameters, and cluster destruction rates. Methods: .We build areduced sample that has been decontaminated of all the clusters youngerthan 10 Gyr and of those with retrograde orbits and/or evidence ofrelation to dwarf galaxies. The reduced sample contains 116 globularclusters that are tested for whether they were formed in the primordialcollapse. Results: .The 33 metal-rich globular clusters([Fe/H]≥-0.75) of the reduced sample basically extend to the Solarcircle and are distributed over a region with the projected axial-ratiostypical of an oblate spheroidal, Δ x:Δ y:Δz≈1.0:0.9:0.4. Those outside this region appear to be related toaccretion. The 81 metal-poor globular clusters span a nearly sphericalregion of axial-ratios ≈1.0:1.0:0.8 extending from the central partsto the outer halo, although several clusters in the external regionstill require detailed studies to unravel their origin as accretion orcollapse. A new estimate of the Sun's distance to the Galactic centre,based on the symmetries of the spatial distribution of 116 globularclusters, is provided with a considerably smaller uncertainty than inprevious determinations using globular clusters, R_O=7.2±0.3 kpc.The metal-rich and metal-poor radial-density distributions flatten forR_GC≤2 kpc and are represented well over the full Galactocentricdistance range both by a power-law with a core-like term andSérsic's law; at large distances they fall off as R-3.9. Conclusions: .Both metallicity components appearto have a common origin that is different from that of the dark matterhalo. Structural similarities between the metal-rich and metal-poorradial distributions and the stellar halo are consistent with a scenariowhere part of the reduced sample was formed in the primordial collapseand part was accreted in an early period of merging. This applies to thebulge as well, suggesting an early merger affecting the central parts ofthe Galaxy. The present decontamination procedure is not sensitive toall accretions (especially prograde) during the first Gyr, since theobserved radial density profiles still preserve traces of the earliestmerger(s). We estimate that the present globular cluster populationcorresponds to ≤23±6% of the original one. The fact that thevolume-density radial distributions of the metal-rich and metal-poorglobular clusters of the reduced sample follow both a core-likepower-law, and Sérsic's law indicates that we are dealing withspheroidal subsystems at all scales.
| Nearby Spiral Globular Cluster Systems. I. Luminosity Functions
We compare the near-infrared (JHK) globular cluster luminosity functions(GCLFs) of the Milky Way, M31, and the Sculptor Group spiral galaxies.We obtained near-infrared photometry with the Persson's AuxiliaryNasmyth Infrared Camera on the Baade Telescope for 38 objects (mostlyglobular cluster candidates) in the Sculptor Group. We also havenear-infrared photometry from the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS)-6Xdatabase for 360 M31 globular cluster candidates and aperture photometryfor 96 Milky Way globular cluster candidates from the 2MASS All-Sky andSecond Incremental Release databases. The M31 6X GCLFs peak at absolutereddening-corrected magnitudes of MJ0=-9.18,MH0=-9.73, and MK0=-9.98.The mean brightness of the Milky Way objects is consistent with that ofM31 after accounting for incompleteness. The average Sculptor absolutemagnitudes (correcting for relative distance from the literature andforeground reddening) are MJ0=-9.18,MH0=-9.70, and MK0=-9.80.NGC 300 alone has absolute foreground-dereddened magnitudesMJ0=-8.87, MH0=-9.39, andMK0=-9.46 using the newest Gieren et al. distance.This implies either that the NGC 300 GCLF may be intrinsically fainterthan that of the larger galaxy M31 or that NGC 300 may be slightlyfarther away than previously thought. Straightforward application of ourM31 GCLF results as a calibrator gives NGC 300 distance moduli of26.68+/-0.14 using J, 26.71+/-0.14 using H, and 26.89+/-0.14 using K.Data for this project were obtained at the Baade 6.5 m telescope, LasCampanas Observatory, Chile.
| RR Lyrae-based calibration of the Globular Cluster Luminosity Function
We test whether the peak absolute magnitude MV(TO) of theGlobular Cluster Luminosity Function (GCLF) can be used for reliableextragalactic distance determination. Starting with the luminosityfunction of the Galactic Globular Clusters listed in Harris catalogue,we determine MV(TO) either using current calibrations of theabsolute magnitude MV(RR) of RR Lyrae stars as a function ofthe cluster metal content [Fe/H] and adopting selected cluster samples.We show that the peak magnitude is slightly affected by the adoptedMV(RR)-[Fe/H] relation, with the exception of that based onthe revised Baade-Wesselink method, while it depends on the criteria toselect the cluster sample. Moreover, grouping the Galactic GlobularClusters by metallicity, we find that the metal-poor (MP) ([Fe/H]<-1.0, <[Fe/H]>~-1.6) sample shows peak magnitudes systematicallybrighter by about 0.36mag than those of the metal-rich (MR) ([Fe/H]>-1.0, (<[Fe/H]>~-0.6) one, in substantial agreement with thetheoretical metallicity effect suggested by synthetic Globular Clusterpopulations with constant age and mass function. Moving outside theMilky Way, we show that the peak magnitude of the MP clusters in M31appears to be consistent with that of Galactic clusters with similarmetallicity, once the same MV(RR)-[Fe/H] relation is used fordistance determination. As for the GCLFs in other external galaxies,using Surface Brightness Fluctuations (SBF) measurements we giveevidence that the luminosity functions of the blue (MP) GlobularClusters peak at the same luminosity within ~0.2mag, whereas for the red(MR) samples the agreement is within ~0.5mag even accounting for thetheoretical metallicity correction expected for clusters with similarages and mass distributions. Then, using the SBF absolute magnitudesprovided by a Cepheid distance scale calibrated on a fiducial distanceto Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), we show that the MV(TO)value of the MP clusters in external galaxies is in excellent agreementwith the value of both Galactic and M31 ones, as inferred by an RR Lyraedistance scale referenced to the same LMC fiducial distance. Eventually,adopting μ0(LMC) = 18.50mag, we derive that the luminosityfunction of MP clusters in the Milky Way, M31, and external galaxiespeak at MV(TO) =-7.66 +/- 0.11, - 7.65 +/- 0.19 and -7.67 +/-0.23mag, respectively. This would suggest a value of -7.66 +/- 0.09mag(weighted mean), with any modification of the LMC distance modulusproducing a similar variation of the GCLF peak luminosity.
| Stellar mass loss and the intracluster medium in Galactic globular clusters: a deep radio survey for HI and OH
We present the results of a survey, the deepest to date, for HI emissionat 21 cm and OH emission at 18 cm (lines at 1612, 1665, 1667 and 1720MHz) in the direction towards the Galactic globular clusters M15, M2,NGC6934, NGC7006 and Pal13. The aim is to measure the amount of hydrogenin the intracluster medium, and to find OH masers in the circumstellarenvelopes of globular cluster red giants. We present a tentativedetection of 0.3Msolar of neutral hydrogen in M15 andpossible detections of neutral hydrogen in M2 and Pal13. We derive upperlimits to the neutral hydrogen content of NGC6934 and 7006. No OHemission is detected. We also present deep HI data of the northern tipof the Magellanic Stream behind Pal13.
| Hot Populations in M87 Globular Clusters
To explore the production of UV-bright stars in old, metal-richpopulations like those in elliptical galaxies, we have obtained HubbleSpace Telescope (HST) Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph far- andnear-UV photometry of globular clusters (GCs) in four fields in thegiant elliptical (gE) galaxy M87. To a limit of mFUV~25 wedetect a total of 66 GCs in common with the deep HST optical-band studyof Kundu et al. Despite strong overlap in V- and I-band properties, theM87 GCs have UV-optical properties that are distinct from clusters inthe Milky Way and in M31. M87 clusters, especially metal-poor ones,produce larger hot horizontal-branch populations than do Milky Wayanalogs. In color plots including the near-UV band, the M87 clustersappear to represent an extension of the Milky Way sequence. Cluster massis probably not a factor in these distinctions. The most metal-rich M87GCs in our sample are near solar metallicity and overlap the local Egalaxy sample in estimated Mg2 line indices. Nonetheless, theclusters produce much more UV light at a given Mg2, being upto 1 mag bluer than any gE galaxy in (FUV-V) color. The M87 GCs do notappear to represent a transition between Milky Way-type clusters and Egalaxies. The differences are in the correct sense if the clusters aresignificantly older than the E galaxies.Comparisons with Galactic open clusters indicate that the hot stars lieon the extreme horizontal branch, rather than being blue stragglers, andthat the extreme horizontal branch becomes well populated for ages>~5 Gyr. Existing model grids for clusters do not match theobservations well, due to poorly understood giant branch mass loss orperhaps high helium abundances. We find that 41 of our UV detectionshave no optical-band counterparts. Most appear to be UV-brightbackground galaxies seen through M87. Eleven near-UV variable sourcesdetected at only one epoch in the central field are probably classicalnovae. Two recurrent variable sources have no obvious explanation butcould be related to activity in the relativistic jet.
| Resolved Massive Star Clusters in the Milky Way and Its Satellites: Brightness Profiles and a Catalog of Fundamental Parameters
We present a database of structural and dynamical properties for 153spatially resolved star clusters in the Milky Way, the Large and SmallMagellanic Clouds, and the Fornax dwarf spheroidal. This databasecomplements and extends others in the literature, such as those ofHarris and Mackey & Gilmore. Our cluster sample comprises 50 ``youngmassive clusters'' in the LMC and SMC, and 103 old globular clustersbetween the four galaxies. The parameters we list include central andhalf-light-averaged surface brightnesses and mass densities; core andeffective radii; central potentials, concentration parameters, and tidalradii; predicted central velocity dispersions and escape velocities;total luminosities, masses, and binding energies; central phase-spacedensities; half-mass relaxation times; and ``κ-space'' parameters.We use publicly available population-synthesis models to computestellar-population properties (intrinsic B-V colors, reddenings, andV-band mass-to-light ratios) for the same 153 clusters plus another 63globulars in the Milky Way. We also take velocity-dispersionmeasurements from the literature for a subset of 57 (mostly old)clusters to derive dynamical mass-to-light ratios for them, showing thatthese compare very well to the population-synthesis predictions. Thecombined data set is intended to serve as the basis for futureinvestigations of structural correlations and the fundamental plane ofmassive star clusters, including especially comparisons between thesystemic properties of young and old clusters.The structural and dynamical parameters are derived from fitting threedifferent models-the modified isothermal sphere of King; an alternatemodified isothermal sphere based on the ad hoc stellar distributionfunction of Wilson; and asymptotic power-law models withconstant-density cores-to the surface-brightness profile of eachcluster. Surface-brightness data for the LMC, SMC, and Fornax clustersare based in large part on the work of Mackey & Gilmore, but includesignificant supplementary data culled from the literature and importantcorrections to Mackey & Gilmore's V-band magnitude scale. Theprofiles of Galactic globular clusters are taken from Trager et al. Weaddress the question of which model fits each cluster best, finding inthe majority of cases that the Wilson models-which are spatially moreextended than King models but still include a finite, ``tidal'' cutoffin density-fit clusters of any age, in any galaxy, as well as or betterthan King models. Untruncated, asymptotic power laws often fit about aswell as Wilson models but can be significantly worse. We argue that theextended halos known to characterize many Magellanic Cloud clusters maybe examples of the generic envelope structure of self-gravitating starclusters, not just transient features associated strictly with youngage.
| A Library of Integrated Spectra of Galactic Globular Clusters
We present a new library of integrated spectra of 40 Galactic globularclusters, obtained with the Blanco 4 m telescope and the R-Cspectrograph at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory. The spectracover the range ~3350-6430 Å with ~3.1 Å (FWHM) resolution.The spectroscopic observations and data reduction were designed tointegrate the full projected area within the cluster core radii in orderto properly sample the light from stars in all relevant evolutionarystages. The S/N values of the flux-calibrated spectra range from 50 to240 Å-1 at 4000 Å and from 125 to 500Å-1 at 5000 Å. The selected targets span a widerange of cluster parameters, including metallicity, horizontal-branchmorphology, Galactic coordinates, Galactocentric distance, andconcentration. The total sample is thus fairly representative of theentire Galactic globular cluster population and should be valuable forcomparison with similar integrated spectra of unresolved stellarpopulations in remote systems. For most of the library clusters, ourspectra can be coupled with deep color-magnitude diagrams and reliablemetal abundances from the literature to enable the calibration ofstellar population synthesis models. In this paper we present a detailedaccount of the observations and data reduction. The spectral library ispublicly available in electronic format from the National OpticalAstronomical Observatory Web site.
| VLT spectroscopy of globular cluster systems. II. Spectroscopic ages, metallicities, and [ α/Fe] ratios of globular clusters in early-type galaxies
An analysis of ages, metallicities, and [ α/Fe] ratios of globularcluster systems in early-type galaxies is presented, based on Lick indexmeasurements summarized in Puzia et al. (2004, A&A, 415, 123, PaperI of this series). In the light of calibration and measurementuncertainties, age-metallicity degeneracy, and the relative dynamicrange of Lick indices, as well as systematics introduced by abundanceratio variations (in particular variations of [ α/Fe] ratios), wefind that the most reliable age indicator for our dataset is acombination of the Lick Balmer-line indices Hγ_A, Hβ, andHδ_A. [MgFe]´ is used as a spectroscopic metallicityindicator which is least affected by [ α/Fe] variations. Weintroduce an interpolation routine to simultaneously derive ages,metallicities, and [ α/Fe] ratios from diagnostic gridsconstructed from Lick indices. From a comparison of high-quality datawith SSP model predictions, we find that 2/3 of the globular clustersin early-type galaxies are older than 10 Gyr, up to 1/3 have ages in therange 5{-}10 Gyr, and only a few cluster are younger than 5 Gyr. Oursample of globular clusters covers metallicities from [Z/H] ≈ -1.3 upto 0.5 dex. We find that metal-rich globular clusters show on average asmaller mean age and a larger age scatter than their metal-poorcounterparts. [ α/Fe] diagnostic plots show that globular clustersystems in early-type galaxies have super-solar α/Fe abundanceratios with a mean [ α/Fe] = 0.47 ± 0.06 dex and adispersion of 0.3 dex. We find evidence for a correlation between [α/Fe] and metallicity, in the sense that more metal-rich clustersexhibit lower α-element enhancements. A discussion of systematicsrelated to the Lick index system shows that the method suffers to someextent from uncertainties due to unknown horizontal branch morphologiesat high metallicities. However, these systematics still allow us to makegood qualitative statements. A detailed investigation of indices as afunction of data quality reveals that the scatter in Balmer index valuesdecreases for higher-quality data. In particular, extremely low Balmerindex values that are lower than any SSP model prediction tend todisappear. Furthermore, we find that observed photometric colors are ingood agreement with computed SSP colors using ages and metallicities asderived from the spectroscopic line indices.
| Hubble Space Telescope WFPC2 Color-Magnitude Diagrams for Globular Clusters in M31
We report new photometry for 10 globular clusters in M31, observed to auniform depth of four orbits in F555W (V) and F814W (I) using WFPC2 onboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). In addition, we have reanalyzedHST archival data of comparable quality for two more clusters. A specialfeature of our analysis is the extraordinary care taken to account forthe effects of blended stellar images and the required subtraction ofcontamination from the field stellar populations in M31 in which theclusters are embedded. We thus reach 1 mag fainter than the horizontalbranch (HB), even in unfavorable cases. We also show that an apparentpeculiar steep slope of the HB for those clusters with blue HB stars isactually due to blends between blue HB stars and red giants. We presentthe color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs) and discuss their main features incomparison with the properties of the Galactic globular clusters. Thisanalysis is augmented with CMDs previously obtained and discussed oneight other M31 clusters. We report the following significant results:(1) The loci of the red giant branches give reliable photometricmetallicity determinations that generally compare very well withground-based integrated spectroscopic and photometric measures, as wellas giving good reddening estimates. (2) The HB morphologies follow thesame behavior with metallicity as the Galactic globular clusters, withindications that the second-parameter effect can be present in someclusters of our sample. However, at [Fe/H]=~-1.7 we observe a number ofclusters with red HB morphology such that the HB type versus [Fe/H]relationship is offset from that of the Milky Way (MW) and resemblesthat of the Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxy. One explanation for theoffset is that the most metal-poor M31 globular clusters are youngerthan their MW counterparts by 1-2 Gyr; further study is required. (3)The MV(HB) versus [Fe/H] relationship has been redetermined,and the slope (~0.20) is very similar to the values derived from RRLyrae stars in the MW and the LMC. The zero point of this relation(MV=0.51 at [Fe/H]=-1.5) is based on the assumed distancemodulus (m-M)0(M31)=24.47+/-0.03, and is consistent with thedistance scale that places the LMC at (m-M)0(LMC)=18.55.Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope atthe Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). STScI is operated by theAssociation of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASAcontract NAS5-26555.
| A robust method for the analysis of integrated spectra from globular clusters using Lick indices
We define a method for the analysis of the integrated spectra ofextragalactic globular clusters that provides more reliable measures ofthe age, metallicity and α-element abundance ratio than have sofar been achieved. The method involves the simultaneous fitting of up to25 Lick indices in a χ2 fitting technique that maximizesthe use of the available data. Here we compare three sets of singlestellar population (SSP) models of Lick indices to the highsignal-to-noise, integrated spectra of 20 Galactic globular clusters.The ages, [Fe/H] and α-element abundance ratios derived from theSSP models are compared with the results of resolved stellar populationstudies from the literature. We find good consistency with the publishedvalues, with an agreement of better than 0.1 dex in all three derivedparameters. The technique allows the identification of abundance ratioanomalies, such as the known nitrogen overabundance in Galactic globularclusters, and the presence of anomalous horizontal branch morphologies.It also minimizes the impact on the derived parameters of imperfectcalibration to the Lick system, and reduction errors in general. Themethod defined in this paper is therefore robust with respect to many ofthe difficulties that plague the application of SSP models in general.Consequently, it is well suited to the study of extragalactic globularcluster systems.
| Comparing the properties of local globular cluster systems: implications for the formation of the Galactic halo
We investigate the hypothesis that some fraction of the globularclusters presently observed in the Galactic halo formed in externaldwarf galaxies. This is done by means of a detailed comparison betweenthe `old halo', `young halo' and `bulge/disc' subsystems defined by Zinnand the globular clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud, SmallMagellanic Cloud, and Fornax and Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxies.We first use high-quality photometry from Hubble Space Telescope imagesto derive a complete set of uniform measurements of horizontal branch(HB) morphology in the external clusters. We also compile structural andmetallicity measurements for these objects and update the data base ofsuch measurements for the Galactic globular clusters, including newcalculations of HB morphology for 11 objects. Using these data togetherwith recent measurements of globular cluster kinematics and ages weexamine the characteristics of the three Galactic cluster subsystems.Each is quite distinct in terms of their spatial and age distributions,age-metallicity relationships, and typical orbital parameters, althoughwe observe some old halo clusters with ages and orbits more similar tothose of young halo objects. In addition, almost all of the Galacticglobular clusters with large core radii fall into the young halosubsystem, while the old halo and bulge/disc ensembles are characterizedby compact clusters. We demonstrate that the majority of the externalglobular clusters are essentially indistinguishable from the Galacticyoung halo objects in terms of HB morphology, but ~20-30 per cent ofexternal clusters have HB morphologies most similar to the Galactic oldhalo clusters. We further show that the external clusters have adistribution of core radii which very closely matches that for the younghalo objects. The old halo distribution of core radii can be very wellrepresented by a composite distribution formed from ~83-85 per cent ofobjects with structures typical of bulge/disc clusters, and ~15-17 percent of objects with structures typical of external clusters. Takentogether our results fully support the accretion hypothesis. We concludethat all 30 young halo clusters and 15-17 per cent of the old haloclusters (10-12 objects) are of external origin. Based on cluster numbercounts, we estimate that the Galaxy may have experienced approximatelyseven merger events with cluster-bearing dwarf-spheroidal-type galaxiesduring its lifetime, building up ~45-50 per cent of the mass of theGalactic stellar halo. Finally, we identify a number of old halo objectswhich have properties characteristic of accreted clusters. Several ofthe clusters associated with the recently proposed dwarf galaxy in CanisMajor fall into this category.
| Ages and metallicities of star clusters: New calibrations and diagnostic diagrams from visible integrated spectra
We present homogeneous scales of ages and metallicities for starclusters from very young objects, through intermediate-age ones up tothe oldest known clusters. All the selected clusters have integratedspectra in the visible range, as well as reliable determinations oftheir ages and metallicities. From these spectra equivalent widths (EWs)of K Ca II, G band (CH) and Mg I metallic, and Hδ, Hγ andHβ Balmer lines have been measured homogeneously. The analysis ofthese EWs shows that the EW sums of the metallic and Balmer H lines,separately, are good indicators of cluster age for objects younger than10 Gyr, and that the former is also sensitive to cluster metallicity forages greater than 10 Gyr. We propose an iterative procedure forestimating cluster ages by employing two new diagnostic diagrams and agecalibrations based on the above EW sums. For clusters older than 10 Gyr,we also provide a calibration to derive their overall metal contents.
| The Chemical Properties of Milky Way and M31 Globular Clusters. I. A Comparative Study
A comparative analysis is performed between high-quality integratedspectral indices of 30 M31 globular clusters, 20 Milky Way globularclusters, and a sample of field and cluster elliptical galaxies. We findthat the Lick CN indices in the M31 and Galactic clusters are enhancedrelative to the bulges of the Milky Way, M31, and elliptical spheroids,in agreement with Burstein and coworkers. Although not particularlyevident in the Lick CN indices, the near-UV cyanogen feature(λ3883) is strongly enhanced with respect to the Galacticglobular clusters at metallicities -1.5<[Fe/H]<-0.3. Carbon showssigns of varying among these two groups. For [Fe/H]>-0.8, we observeno systematic differences in the Hδ, Hγ, or Hβ indicesbetween the M31 and Galactic globular clusters, in contrast to previousstudies. The elliptical galaxy sample lies offset from the loci of theglobular clusters in both the cyanogen-[MgFe] and Balmer-line-[MgFe]planes. Six of the M31 clusters appear young and are projected onto theM31 disk. Population synthesis models suggest that these are metal-richclusters with ages 100-800 Myr, metallicities -0.20<=[Fe/H]<=0.35,and masses 0.7-~7.0×104 Msolar. Two otheryoung clusters are Hubble V in NGC 205, observed as a template, and anolder (~3 Gyr) cluster some 7 kpc away from the plane of the disk. Thesix clusters projected onto the disk show signs of rotation similar tothe H I gas in M31, and three clusters exhibit thin disk kinematics,according to Morrison and coworkers. Dynamical mass estimates anddetailed structural parameters are required for these objects todetermine whether they are massive open clusters or globular clusters.If they are the latter, our findings suggest globular clusters may tracethe buildup of galaxy disks. In either case, we conclude that theseclusters are part of a young, metal-rich disk cluster system in M31,possibly as young as 1 Gyr old.
| The initial helium abundance of the Galactic globular cluster system
In this paper we estimate the initial He content in about 30% of theGalactic globular clusters (GGCs) from new star counts we have performedon the recently published HST snapshot database of Colour MagnitudeDiagrams (Piotto et al. \cite{Piotto02}). More specifically, we use theso-called R-parameter and estimate the He content from a theoreticalcalibration based on a recently updated set of stellar evolution models.We performed an accurate statistical analysis in order to assess whetherGGCs show a statistically significant spread in their initial Heabundances, and whether there is a correlation with the clustermetallicity. As in previous works on the subject, we do not find anysignificant dependence of the He abundance on the cluster metallicity;this provides an important constraint for models of Galaxy formation andevolution. Apart from GGCs with the bluest Horizontal Branch morphology,the observed spread in the individual helium abundances is statisticallycompatible with the individual errors. This means that either there isno intrinsic abundance spread among the GGCs, or that this is masked bythe errors. In the latter case we have estimated a firm 1σ upperlimit of 0.019 to the possible intrinsic spread. In case of the GGCswith the bluest Horizontal Branch morphology we detect a significantspread towards higher abundances inconsistent with the individualerrors; this can be fully explained by additional effects not accountedfor in our theoretical calibrations, which do not affect the abundancesestimated for the clusters with redder Horizontal Branch morphology. Inthe hypothesis that the intrinsic dispersion on the individual Heabundances is zero, taking into account the errors on the individualR-parameter estimates, as well as the uncertainties on the clustermetallicity scale and theoretical calibration, we have determined aninitial He abundance mass fraction YGGC=0.250±0.006.This value is in perfect agreement with current estimates based onCosmic Microwave Background radiation analyses and cosmologicalnucleosynthesis computations.Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtainedat the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA,Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555, and on observations retrieved withthe ESO ST-ECF Archive.
| Integrated spectral energy distributions and absorption-feature indices of single stellar populations
Using evolutionary population synthesis, we present integrated spectralenergy distributions and absorption-line indices defined by the LickObservatory image dissector scanner (referred to as Lick/IDS) system,for an extensive set of instantaneous burst single stellar populations(SSPs). The ages of the SSPs are in the range 1 Gyr <=τ<= 19Gyr and the metallicities are in the range -2.3 <=[Fe/H]<=+0.2.Our models use the rapid single stellar evolution algorithm of Hurley,Pols and Tout for the stellar evolutionary tracks, the empirical andsemi-empirical calibrated BaSeL-2.0 model of Lejeune, Cuisinier andBuser for the library of stellar spectra and the empirical fittingfunctions of Worthey, Faber, Gonzalez and Burstein for the Lick/IDSspectral absorption-feature indices.Applying our synthetic Lick/IDS absorption-line indices to the meritfunction, we obtain the age and the metallicity of the central region ofM32, which can be well explained by an instantaneous SSP with an age of~6.5 Gyr and a metallicity similar to solar. Applying the derived ageand the metallicity from the merit function to a number of index-indexdiagrams, we find that the plots of Hβ-Fe5015 andHβ-Fe5782 are the best index-index diagrams from whichwe can directly obtain reasonable age and metallicity.
| Keck spectroscopy and imaging of globular clusters in the lenticular galaxy NGC 524
We have obtained Keck Low-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer imaging andspectra for 29 globular clusters associated with the lenticular galaxyNGC 524. Using the empirical calibration of Brodie & Huchra we findthat our spectroscopic sample spans a metallicity range of -2.0<=[Fe/H]<= 0. We have compared the composite spectrum of themetal-poor ([Fe/H] < -1) and metal-rich clusters with stellarpopulation models in order to estimate the ages of the NGC 524 globularclusters. We conclude that the clusters are generally old, and arecoeval at the 2σ confidence level. To determine the mean[α/Fe] ratios of the globular clusters, we have employed theMilone et al. α-enhanced stellar population models. We verifiedthe reliability of these models by comparing them with highsignal-to-noise Galactic globular cluster spectra. We observe a weaktrend of decreasing [α/Fe] ratios with increasing metallicity inthe NGC 524 clusters; the metal-poor clusters possess [α/Fe]~0.3,whilst the metal-rich clusters exhibit [α/Fe] ratios closer tosolar-scaled values. Analysis of the cluster system kinematics revealsthat the full sample (excluding an outlying cluster) exhibits a rotationof 114 +/- 60 km s-1 around a position angle of 22°+/-27°, and a velocity dispersion of 186 +/- 29 km s-1 at amean radius of 89 arcsec from the galaxy centre. Subdividing theclusters into metal-poor and metal-rich subcomponents (at [Fe/H]=-1.0),we find that the metal-poor (17) clusters and metal-rich (11) clustershave similar velocity dispersions (197 +/- 40 and 169 +/- 47 kms-1, respectively). However, the metal-poor clusters dominatethe rotation in our sample with 147 +/- 75 km s-1, whilst themetal-rich clusters show no significant rotation (68 +/- 84 kms-1). We derive a virial and projected mass estimation forNGC 524 of between 4 and 13 × 1011 Msolar(depending on the assumed orbital distribution) interior to ~2 effectiveradii of this galaxy.
| Star Clusters in the Galactic Anticenter Stellar Structure and the Origin of Outer Old Open Clusters
The Galactic anticenter stellar structure (GASS) has been identifiedwith excess surface densities of field stars in several large-area skysurveys and with an unusual, stringlike grouping of five globularclusters. At least two of these are diffuse, young ``transitional''clusters between open and globular types. Here we call attention to thefact that four younger open or transitional clusters extend thepreviously identified, stringlike cluster grouping, with at least onehaving a radial velocity consistent with the previously found GASSvelocity-longitude trend. All nine clusters lie close to a plane tipped17° to the Galactic plane. This planar orientation is used to foragefor additional potential cluster members in the inner Galaxy, and anumber are found along the same plane and stringlike sequence, includingalmost all 15 known outer, old open clusters. Tidal accretion of a dwarfsatellite galaxy on a low-inclination orbit-perhaps the GASSsystem-appears to be a plausible explanation for the origin of theouter, old open and transitional clusters of the Milky Way. We use theseclusters to explore the age-metallicity relation of the putativeaccreted GASS progenitor. Finally, we provide the first radial velocityof a star in the cluster BH 176 and discuss its implications.
| An Infrared Spectroscopic Study of Eight Galactic Globular Clusters
We have obtained medium-resolution infrared K-band spectra of 44 giantsin seven heavily reddened clusters in the Galactic bulge, as well as 12giants in ω Centauri. We measure the equivalent widths of the Nadoublet, the Ca triplet, and the CO band head, and then apply the newtechnique of Frogel et al. to determine the metallicity of each star.Averaging these values, we estimate the metallicity for each cluster andcompare our new [Fe/H] values with previous determinations from theliterature. Our estimates for each cluster are NGC 6256 (-1.35), NGC6539 (-0.79), HP 1 (-1.30), Liller 1 (-0.36), Palomar 6 (-0.52), Terzan2 (-0.87), and Terzan 4 (-1.62). We briefly discuss differences betweenthe various [Fe/H] scales on which it was possible to base ourcalibration, which is found to be the largest uncertainty in using thistechnique to determine metallicities.
| The Red Giant Branch luminosity function bump
We present observational estimates of the magnitude difference betweenthe luminosity function red giant branch bump and the horizontal branch(Delta F555WbumpHB), and of star counts in thebump region (Rbump), for a sample of 54 Galactic globularclusters observed by the HST. The large sample of stars resolved in eachcluster, and the high photometric accuracy of the data allowed us todetect the bump also in a number of metal poor clusters. To reduce thephotometric uncertainties, empirical values are compared withtheoretical predictions obtained from a set of updated canonical stellarevolution models which have been transformed directly into the HSTflight system. We found an overall qualitative agreement between theoryand observations. Quantitative estimates of the confidence level arehampered by current uncertainties on the globular cluster metallicityscale, and by the strong dependence of DeltaF555WbumpHB on the cluster metallicity. In case ofthe Rbump parameter, which is only weakly affected by themetallicity, we find a very good quantitative agreement betweentheoretical canonical models and observations. For our full clustersample the average difference between predicted and observedRbump values is practically negligible, and ranges from-0.002 to -0.028, depending on the employed metallicity scale. Theobserved dispersion around these values is entirely consistent with theobservational errors on Rbump. As a comparison, the value ofRbump predicted by theory in case of spurious bump detectionsdue to Poisson noise in the stellar counts would be ~ 0.10 smaller thanthe observed ones. We have also tested the influence on the predictedDelta F555WbumpHB and Rbump values ofan He-enriched component in the cluster stellar population, as recentlysuggested by D'Antona et al. (\cite{d02}). We find that, underreasonable assumptions concerning the size of this He-enrichedpopulation and the degree of enrichment, the predicted DeltaF555WbumpHB and Rbump values are onlymarginally affected.Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtainedat the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA,Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555, and on observations retrieved withthe ESO ST-ECF Archive.
| Globular Clusters as Candidates for Gravitational Lenses to Explain Quasar-Galaxy Associations
We argue that globular clusters (GCs) are good candidates forgravitational lenses in explaining quasar-galaxy associations. Thecatalog of associations (Bukhmastova 2001) compiled from the LEDAcatalog of galaxies (Paturel 1997) and from the catalog of quasars(Veron-Cetty and Veron 1998) is used. Based on the new catalog, we showthat one might expect an increased number of GCs around irregulargalaxies of types 9 and 10 from the hypothesis that distant compactsources are gravitationally lensed by GCs in the halos of foregroundgalaxies. The King model is used to determine the central surfacedensities of 135 GCs in the Milky Way. The distribution of GCs incentral surface density was found to be lognormal.
| Stellar population models of Lick indices with variable element abundance ratios
We provide the whole set of Lick indices from CN1 toTiO2 in the wavelength range 4000 <~<~λ<~6500 Å of simple stellar population models with, for the firsttime, variable element abundance ratios, [α/Fe ]= 0.0, 0.3, 0.5,[α/Ca ]=-0.1, 0.0, 0.2, 0.5 and [α/N]=-0.5, 0.0. The modelscover ages between 1 and 15 Gyr, metallicities between 1/200 and 3.5solar. The impact from the element abundance changes on theabsorption-line indices is taken from Tripicco & Bell, using anextension of the method introduced by Trager et al. Our models are freefrom the intrinsic α/Fe bias that was imposed by the Milky Waytemplate stars up to now, hence they reflect well-defined α/Feratios at all metallicities. The models are calibrated with Milky Wayglobular clusters for which metallicities and α/Fe ratios areknown from independent spectroscopy of individual stars. Themetallicities that we derive from the Lick indices Mgb and Fe5270 are inexcellent agreement with the metallicity scale by Zinn & West, andwe show that the latter provides total metallicity rather than ironabundance. We can reproduce the relatively strong CN-absorption featuresCN1 and CN2 of galactic globular clusters withmodels in which nitrogen is enhanced by a factor of 3. An enhancement ofcarbon, instead, would lead to serious inconsistencies with the indicesMg1 and C24668. The calcium sensitive index Ca4227of globular clusters is well matched by our models with [Ca/Fe]= 0.3,including the metal-rich bulge clusters NGC 6528 and 6553. From ourα/Fe-enhanced models we infer that the index [MgFe] defined byGonzález is quite independent of α/Fe but still slightlydecreases with increasing α/Fe. We find that the index , instead,is completely independent of α/Fe and serves best as a tracer oftotal metallicity. Searching for blue indices that give similarinformation as Mg b and , we find that CN1 andFe4383 may be best suited to estimating α/Fe ratios of objects atredshifts z~ 1.
| Integrated spectroscopy of bulge globular clusters and fields. II. Implications for population synthesis models and elliptical galaxies
An empirical calibration is presented for the synthetic Lick indices(e.g. Mg2, , Hβ, etc.) of Simple StellarPopulation (SSP) models that for the first time extends up to solarmetallicity. This is accomplished by means of a sample of Milky Wayglobular clusters (GCs) whose metallicities range from ~Zsun/30 to Z ~ Zsun, thanks to the inclusion ofseveral metal rich clusters belonging to the Galactic bulge (e.g., NGC6553 and NGC 6528). This metallicity range approaches the regime that isrelevant for the interpretation of the integrated spectra of ellipticalgalaxies. It is shown that the spectra of both the globular clusters andthe Galactic bulge follow the same correlation between magnesium andiron indices that extends to elliptical galaxies, showing weaker ironindices at given magnesium indices with respect to the predictions ofmodels that assume solar-scaled abundances. This similarity providesrobust empirical evidence for enhanced [α/Fe] ratios in thestellar populations of elliptical galaxies, since the globular clustersare independently known to have enhanced [α/Fe] ratios fromspectroscopy of individual stars. We check the uniqueness of this alpha-overabundance solution by exploring the whole range of modelingredients and parameters, i.e. fitting functions, stellar tracks, andthe initial mass function (IMF). We argue that the standard models(meant for solar abundance ratios) succeed in reproducing the Mg-Fecorrelation at low metallicities ([Z/H]lapprox-0.7) because the stellartemplates used in the synthesis are Galactic halo stars that actuallyare alpha -enhanced. The same models, however, fail to predict theobserved Mg-Fe pattern at higher metallicities ([Z/H] >~-0.7) (i.e.,for bulge clusters and ellipticals alike) because the high-metallicitytemplates are disk stars that are not alpha -enhanced. We show that thenew set of SSP models which incorporates the dependence on the[α/Fe] ratio (Thomas et al. \cite{Thomas02b}) is able toreproduce the Mg and Fe indices of GCs at all metallicities, with analpha -enhancement [α/Fe]=+0.3, in agreement with the availablespectroscopic determinations. The Hβ index and the higher-orderBalmer indices are well calibrated, provided the appropriate morphologyof the Horizontal Branch is taken into account. In particular, theBalmer line indices of the two metal rich clusters NGC 6388 and NGC6441, which are known to exhibit a tail of warm Horizontal Branch stars,are well reproduced. Finally, we note that the Mg indices of verymetal-poor ([Z/H] <~-1.8) populations are dominated by thecontribution of the lower Main Sequence, hence are strongly affected bythe present-day mass function of individual globular clusters, which isknown to vary from cluster to cluster due to dynamical effects.
| Building Up the Globular Cluster System of the Milky Way: The Contribution of the Sagittarius Galaxy
We demonstrate that there is a clear statistical correlation between the(X,Y,Z,Vr) phase-space distribution of the outer haloGalactic globular clusters (having 10 kpc<=RGC<=40 kpc)and the orbital path of the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy (SgrdSph), as derived by Ibata & Lewis. At least four of the sample of35 globular clusters in this distance range were formerly members of theSagittarius galaxy (at the 95% confidence level) and are now distributedalong the Sagittarius Stream, a giant tidal structure that surrounds theMilky Way. This is the first instance that a statistically significantstructure associated with the Sgr dSph has been detected in the globularcluster population of the Galactic halo. Together with the fourwell-known globular clusters that are located near the center of thistidally disrupting dwarf galaxy, these clusters constitute >~20% ofthe population of outer halo (RGC>=10 kpc) clusters. TheSgr dSph was therefore not only an important contributor to the halofield-star population, but it also had a significant role in building upthe globular cluster system of the Milky Way.
| VLT spectroscopy of NGC 3115 globular clusters
We present results derived from VLT-FORS2 spectra of 24 differentglobular clusters associated with the lenticular galaxy NGC 3115. Asubsample of 17 globular clusters have sufficiently high signal-to-noiseto allow precision measurements of absorption line-strengths. Comparingthese indices to new stellar population models by Thomas et al. wedetermine ages, metallicities and element abundance ratios. For thefirst time these stellar population models explicitly take abundanceratio biases in the Lick/IDS stellar library into account. Our data arealso compared with the Lick/IDS observations of Milky Way and M 31globular clusters. Unpublished higher order Balmer lines(HγA ,F and HdeltaA ,F) from the Lick/IDSobservations are given in the Appendix. Our best age estimates show thatthe observed clusters which sample the bimodal colour distribution ofNGC 3115 are coeval within our observational errors (2-3 Gyr). Our bestcalibrated age/metallicity diagnostic diagram (Hβ / vs. [MgFe])indicates an absolute age of 11-12 Gyr consistent with the luminosityweighted age for the central part of NGC 3115. We confirm with ouraccurate line-strength measurements that the (V-I) colour is a goodmetallicity indicator within the probed metallicity range (-1.5 <[Fe/H] < 0.0). The abundance ratios for globular clusters in NGC 3115give an inhomogeneous picture. We find a range from solar to super-solarratios for both blue and red clusters. This is similar to the data for M31 while the Milky Way seems to harbour clusters which are mainlyconsistent with [alpha / Fe] =~ 0.3. From our accurate recessionvelocities we detect, independent of metallicity, clear rotation in thesample of globular clusters. In order to explain the metallicity andabundance ratio pattern, particularly the range in abundance ratios forthe metal rich globular clusters in NGC 3115, we favour a formationpicture with more than two distinct formation episodes. Based onobservations collected at the European Southern Observatory, CerroParanal, Chile (ESO No. 66.B-0131).
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